I. WILLIAM ZARTMAN
Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, The Johns Hopkins University, 1740 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20036 USA

"Negotiating Identity" is a title that has appeared with great frequency at meetings of professional associations of anthropology and area studies, to the point where it began to intrigue editors of the journal, International Negotiation. The idea therefore appeared for an issue on the understanding of "negotiation" in relation to identity, as used in disciplinary or area studies largely in regard to the Third World. On closer examination and inquiry, however, the term turned out to have no conceptual meaning, serving only as a metaphor according to one usage (Michalak 1990), and often synonymous with a range of more neutral terms ranging from "forming" to "navigating."

Negotiating National Identity in North Africa

KARIM MEZRAN
John Cabot University, Via della Lungara, 233 00165 Rome, Italy

Abstract. The development of a polity can be explained by studying the emergence of national identity, not only as the product of conscious elite actions but as the outcome of negotiations (or lack thereof) between opposing visions within elite groups at the national movement stage and at subsequent key historical moments. Polities where effective broadbased negotiations on national identity values and beliefs were conducted among competing elites tend to enjoy a greater degree of medium to long term stability, while those emerging states where negotiations were not conducted and only one identity vision was imposed tend to suffer from identity and political crises in the course of their political development. Morocco and Algeria present two opposing cases: the former, in which broadbased inter-elite negotiations led to a definition of national identity that became widely shared by the population at large, and the latter, where the lack of such negotiations and the violent outcome of the civil war led to the imposition of only one identity vision and to the subsequent identity crisis that has plagued the country since the early 1980s.

VALERIE-BARBARA ROSOUX
Unite de science politique et de relations internationales, Universite catholique de Louvain, Place Montesquieu, 1/7-8, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium

Abstract. When international conflicts come to an end, the question that is raised is not only "what happened," but also - and more importantly - "what shall we do with the past." Solving conflicts in a durable manner requires a gradual transformation in the way parties represent the past and elaborate their identity. To provide an adequate framework for a rapprochement, identities can no longer rely on a rejection of the other; they must be negotiated. This article is divided into three parts. First, the concepts of identity and memory are described. Second, the pre-reconciliation identities of groups are analyzed. In particular, the article examines the identities produced by France and Germany before their rapprochement. It argues that identities on both sides of the Rhine were conceived in monolithic terms and excluded dissident interpretations. Third, the article attempts to characterize identities as they develop in a reconciliation process. In this regard, the Franco-German case shows that identities may be the result of negotiation between different and often contradictory interpretations. The article describes this process of negotiation - the steps involved, the necessary conditions for it to occur, and the role played by key factors.

YVETTE MONGA
Center for African Studies and Conflict Management Programs, Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, The Johns Hopkins University, and Department of History, George Washington University, Washington, D.C.

Abstract. 'Ethnic' identity does not just happen. It is processed and developed in a context of identity negotiation by culture brokers acting as self-proclaimed representatives of their respective groups. These brokers shaped the politics of identity negotiation in Cameroon around two issues: fair access to state resources along ethnic lines and protection by each group of its share of the national pie from more politically aggressive ethnic groups. In this context, identity negotiation follows an integrative approach that provides culture brokers, turned political entrepreneurs, with open options and flexible positions to address the issues. Sometimes, they play the ethnic majority card, using a language couched in terms of kinship ideology to recruit allies from neighboring groups, producing, through a process of incremental expansion, a larger ethnic group that displays a negotiated common cultural identity. In other cases, they withdraw from the larger group to play the alternative card of a minority group, using village and autochthon rhetoric to emphasize their authenticity and claim special treatments. In all cases, the bottom line of the political entrepreneurs is to negotiate for a share of the national pie.

VANESSA SCHERRER
Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris and Centre d'Etude de la Vie Politique Francaise
10, Rue de la Chaise, 75007 Paris, France

Abstract. Individuals identify and belong to many social groups and the notion of identity negotiation can shed light on the way individuals manage this identity diversity. Based on a case of young French activists, two propositions are developed concerning the process of identity negotiation. First, young activists choose and negotiate "between" their various identifications to build their political identity. Second, their incapacity and unwillingness to decide between the diverse facets of their identity lead them to negotiations "of" these facets, as they relatively balance each of them, depending on the situation. It is further assumed that the very duality of the process of identity construction is the prerequisite allowing association between the concept of identity and the concept of negotiation in its sociological sense, which belongs to the sphere of compromise, instead of war.

SHARON DOERRE
Department of Anthropology, Graduate School, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712 USA

Abstract. Insights from Pruitt's dual-concern model are applied to explore the negotiation of authority across cultures through gender-specific behavior within the intercultural setting of an American archaeological excavation in northern Syria. The annually recurring temporary communities created by archaeological excavations in the Middle East offer an intriguing site for the analysis of the negotiation of social authority in the workplace. American volunteers, both male and female, participate in archaeological excavations as the immediate supervisors of the local Syrian work crew. These archaeological "tourists" generally lack any familiarity with the local language and culture and must rely on their own strategies for managing relations with the Arab work crews. This article examines the daily interactions between the volunteers and workers, focusing specifically on the role of gender in these interactions. Pruitt's model helps to explain why women are generally more successful than men as social actors within this worksite. The rigorous use of the word "negotiate" helps in understanding these social interactions more clearly.

DEAN G. PRUITT
Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22020-4444 USA

Abstract. This issue of International Negotiation examines how negotiation theory can be used to understand the development of people's identity, especially their political identity. All of the articles in the issue involve "negotiation" if it is defined broadly as a process aimed at reconciling conflicting desires or viewpoints. The development of group (collective) identity and individual political identity is explored, and the contribution of negotiation theory to understanding identity development is investigated. Overall, these articles present a challenge to negotiation theory: to develop itself in directions that will be useful for understanding how identities are negotiated. Crucial gaps in this theory are considered.

DANIEL DRUCKMAN
Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia 22030 USA

Abstract. Contributions from the literature on social identity for negotiation theory are discussed in terms of three dimensions of identity. One dimension refers to a dynamic process of negotiating identities. Just as the process of negotiating over divergent interests is influenced by the parties' identities, the identities are shaped by the way that process is conducted. Another dimension refers to the durability of identities, which are shown to have implications for the negotiating flexibility of representatives and their constituents. A third dimension concerns the spread of identities in a population, which are shown to influence the credibility of negotiating commitments, the role played by domestic politics in international negotiation, and the willingness of national representatives to enter into regional or global agreements. These dimensions are used as a framework for comparative research on national identities. Building on Mezran's analysis (article in this issue) of four north African countries, an illustrative application of the framework demonstrates how the research might be implemented.